Traditional Malay medicine is one of the enduring legacies of the Malay civilization that continues to survive to this day. It functions not only as a system of healing but also as a comprehensive framework of thought that connects the body, soul, nature, and religion. In traditional Malay society, health was regarded as a divine blessing that must be preserved. At the same time, the human body was seen as a sacred trust from Allah SWT that carried a great responsibility to be cared for. Thus, traditional Malay medicine serves two primary functions: as a mechanism for disease prevention and health maintenance and as a method of treatment and recovery when illness occurs.

The historical development of Malay medicine can be traced back centuries, particularly within the Malay world and the broader Nusantara archipelago. It emerged out of the practical needs of traditional communities that depended heavily on their natural environment, giving rise to a holistic healthcare system. Initially, this body of knowledge evolved through observation, experience, and inherited practices, before being refined and documented in medical manuscripts known as “Kitab Tibb”. This tradition ensured the continuity of Malay medical knowledge across generations, making it both relevant and sustainable.

The origins of Malay medicine reveal three principal sources of influence:

1. Revelatory Knowledge 

Based on the Qur’an and the Hadith of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), which emphasize health as both a trust of the body and a means of deepening devotion to Allah SWT.

2. Greek and Arab-Islamic Traditions

Including the theory of Mizaj and akhlat (the humors of the body), introduced by figures such as Hippocrates and Galen, and further developed by Muslim scholars like Ibn Sina.

3. Local Malay Practices

The accumulated experiences, observations, and inherited traditions of the Malay community, particularly in their use of herbs, food, and cultural taboos as part of a comprehensive health system.

The integration of these influences produced a unique and holistic system of Malay medicine, where the spiritual, physical, and natural elements complement one another. Health was not viewed solely from the physical dimension but also as a state of balance involving the soul and spirit. For example, the use of supplications (doa) and Qur’anic recitations (ruqyah) alongside herbal remedies demonstrates the seamless integration of Islamic spirituality with traditional healing practices. This holistic character, embracing body, emotions, and soul, is evident in classical manuscripts such as:

1. Bustan al-Salatin (Book 7, Chapter 3: The Science of Anatomy and Medicine), authored by Sheikh Nuruddin al-Raniri in 1638, Acheh Dar al-Salam.

2. Al-Rahmah fi al-Tibb wa al-Hikmah, authored by Sheikh Abbas Kuta Karang in 1857, Acheh.

3. Tayyib al-Ihsan fi Tibb al-Insan, authored by Sheikh Ahmad al-Fatani in 1894.

All these works affirm that Malay medicine is not merely a magical practice, but rather a disciplined, systematic body of knowledge rooted in revelation.

Alongside written manuscripts, oral tradition also played a crucial role in ensuring the continuity of this knowledge. Midwives, healers and traditional Malay practitioners served as the primary transmitters of medical knowledge, disseminating treatments such as massage, the use of herbs, and specific prayers for maintaining harmony between the soul and the body. It is therefore evident that traditional Malay medicine is the result of an integration of Islamic scholarship, Greco-Arab influences, and the local experiences of the Malay community. This synthesis reflects the wisdom of the Malays in incorporating external knowledge into indigenous traditions, ultimately producing a healthcare system that is unique, holistic, and sustainable. Malay medicine functions not only as a medium of healing but also as a symbol of cultural identity that remains relevant for study, practice, and preservation in the modern era.

Philosophy of Malay Medicine

The philosophy of traditional Malay medicine is grounded in the understanding that human health is a state of comprehensive balance encompassing the physical body (jasmani), the spirit (rohani), the intellect (aql), and the soul (nafs). It is rooted in divine revelation, namely the Qur’an and the Hadith of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), which affirm that the human body is a sacred trust (amanah) that must be preserved for worship and servitude to Allah SWT. Thus, Malay medicine cannot be reduced to magical practices or mere animistic beliefs, but rather constitutes an organized, scientific, and theologically centered discipline based on tauhid (the oneness of God).

According to Tabib Ustaz Nornizam Ngadeni (2017), the core philosophy of Malay medicine is:

“To strive for the production and preservation of holistic human health, both spiritual and physical, so as to achieve balance between intellect (aql), soul (nafs), and body (jasad), thereby becoming a healthy individual in essence, attributes, and actions, capable of sincere devotion to Allah Subhanahu wa Ta‘ala.”

This philosophy can be summarized into several fundamental principles that form the conceptual framework of Malay health practices:

1. The Soul as the Foundation of Health

A healthy soul produces a healthy body. Illness is not caused solely by physical factors, but may also stem from spiritual disturbances, emotional imbalance, or weakened spiritual consciousness.

2. Balance Between Soul and Body

Malay medicine emphasizes harmony between the physical body (jasad), intellect (aql), and soul (nafs). Any disruption in one of these elements affects the entire human health system.

3. Prevention Over Cure

The principle of “kaji jaga” (preventive care) is prioritized over “kaji rawat” (treatment). This reflects the Malay emphasis on health preservation, dietary discipline, cultural taboos, and healthy living as measures to avoid illness.

4. Holistic and Comprehensive Approach

The philosophy of Malay medicine encompasses treatment of the body, mind, and spirit. It integrates physical therapies (herbal remedies, massage, and diet), emotional balance (traditional counseling and addressing taboos), and spiritual healing (prayers, Qur’anic recitations, and remembrance of God).

5. Servitude to Allah SWT

The ultimate aim of Malay medicine is not merely physical well-being, but to enable a person to attain spiritual and bodily health, thereby fulfilling their responsibilities as khalifah (vicegerent) on earth.

Thus, the philosophy of Malay medicine regards health not as an end in itself, but as a means (wasilah) to achieve well-being in both this world and the hereafter. This perspective distinguishes Malay medicine from shamanistic systems that are often associated with magical or animistic elements.

Fundamental Principles of Malay Medicine

The fundamental principles of Malay medicine are based on the understanding that the human body consists of two essential components, the soul and the body, which complement each other to achieve holistic health. The balance between these two components is the key to optimal well-being.

Principle 1: The Soul (Roh)

In Malay medicine, the soul is regarded as the essence of life and the center of human spirituality. Without the soul, the body is nothing more than a lifeless vessel. The soul consists of two integral faculties that work in harmony:

1. Intellect (‘aql)

• The intellect functions as the rational and intellectual center of the human being.

• It governs the ability to think, to discern right from wrong, and to make decisions that guide life’s direction.

• Within the Islam-Malay worldview, the intellect is considered a divine gift that distinguishes humans from other creatures, enabling them to acquire knowledge, fulfill responsibilities, and recognize Allah SWT.

• A healthy and balanced intellect leads to clarity of thought, emotional stability, and wise actions. Conversely, a weakened or impaired intellect may result in poor judgment, susceptibility to base desires, and vulnerability to mental distress.

2. The Soul (nafs)

• The nafs refers to the emotional, volitional, and internal inclinations of a human being.

• It is closely tied to spiritual qualities such as patience, sincerity, and reliance on God, or, conversely, to negative traits such as anger, envy, and arrogance.

• In Islamic teachings, the nafs exists at different levels: nafs ammarah (the commanding self inclined to evil), nafs lawwamah (the reproachful self), and nafs mutmainnah (the tranquil soul). One’s level of nafs directly influences spiritual health.

• Emotional balance nurtured through worship, prayer, and spiritual reflection brings inner tranquility that positively affects physical health. On the other hand, a disturbed soul can lead to psychosomatic illnesses such as insomnia, hypertension, and other health disorders.

Principle 2: The Body

In Malay medicine, the body refers to the physical body of human beings, which serves as the vessel for the soul. It is composed of four fundamental elements that complement one another and determine the body’s balance.

1. Earth (cold and dry in nature)

• The element of earth is associated with strength, stability, and bodily structure.

• It forms the bones, flesh, and muscles that make up the physical foundation of the body.

• Earth also symbolizes weight and solidity, providing resilience and endurance.

• However, an excess of earth can lead to conditions such as joint stiffness, muscular rigidity and restricted mobility.

2. Water (cold and moist in nature)

• Water represents softness, moisture, and the balance of bodily fluids.

• It forms the blood, mucus, and other biological fluids essential for sustaining life.

• Water functions as a counterbalance to heat and dryness, ensuring the body remains refreshed and hydrated.

• A deficiency of water may cause dehydration, dry skin, or excessive internal heat, while an excess can lead to phlegm accumulation, lethargy, and diminished vitality.

3. Fire (hot and dry in nature)

• Fire symbolizes energy, metabolism, and digestive power.

• It provides the warmth necessary for normal bodily functions.

• Fire is also linked to inner spirit and vitality.

• When in excess, fire may cause overheating, irritability, fever, or digestive disorders. Conversely, a deficiency of fire can result in weakness, lack of energy, and slow bodily response.

4. Wind (hot and moist in nature)

• Wind represents movement, respiration, and the circulation of energy within the body.

• It plays a crucial role in regulating blood flow, nerve activity, and the internal circulation of energy (quwwah).

• Wind is also associated with balance in the nervous system and bodily coordination.

• An excess of wind can lead to ailments such as bloating, dizziness, or emotional instability, while a deficiency may cause weakness of the nervous system, breathing difficulties, and impaired mobility.

Principle 3: Mizaj (Constitution or Disposition)

In Malay medicine, Mizaj refers to the body’s constitutional tendencies, formed by the blend of the four basic elements: earth, water, fire, and wind. It determines a person’s natural bodily condition and influences both physical and spiritual health. A balanced Mizaj indicates sound health, whereas an imbalance may lead to various illnesses. Nine types of Mizaj are recognized:

1. Hot

• Dominated by the element of fire.

• Individuals tend to sweat easily, feel thirsty, and possess high enthusiasm.

• Excess may cause fever, irritability, insomnia, and dehydration.

2. Cold

• Dominated by water and earth.

• Individuals are typically calm, perspire little, have cool skin, and a low metabolism.

• Excess may result in lethargy, low energy, and digestive disturbances.

3. Dry

• Influenced by earth and fire.

• Features include rough skin, frequent thirst, and a light body that tires easily.

• Excess may lead to constipation, joint pain, and dehydration.

4. Moist

• Dominated by water and wind.

• Individuals are fuller-bodied, with moist skin and moderate metabolism.

• Excess may cause phlegm accumulation, fatigue, and obesity.

5. Hot and Dry (Safrawi)

• A fire and earth combination.

• Typically sharp-minded and quick to act, but prone to irritability.

• Excess may cause skin conditions (rashes, acne), body heat, and inflammation.

6. Hot and Moist (Damawi)

• A fire and wind combination.

• Generally energetic and vigorous, with a fresh complexion.

• Excess may lead to hypertension, headaches, and nerve irritability.

7. Cold and Dry (Saudawi)

• An earth and water blend with a dominant dry quality.

• Individuals tend to be melancholic, reserved, and prone to fatigue.

• Excess may contribute to mental disorders such as depression or anxiety.

8. Cold and Moist (Balghami)

• A water and earth blend with dominant moisture.

• Individuals are often heavy-set, with moist skin and a passive disposition.

• Excess may result in phlegm-related issues, asthma, obesity, and prolonged lethargy.

9. Balanced (Ugahari)

• The ideal temperament is balanced across hot, cold, dry, and moist elements.

• Individuals are typically healthy, spirited, and resilient.

• When disturbed, the body becomes susceptible to illness.

Principle 4: Akhlat (Bodily Humors)

The concept of akhlat in Malay medicine is adapted from Greco–Arab–Islamic traditions developed by scholars such as Hippocrates, Galen, and Ibn Sina. It refers to four fundamental bodily fluids that must remain in balance. Disturbance in any one humor affects both bodily and mental health. The four principal humors are:

1. Blood (Dam)

• A red fluid symbolizing life, energy, and strength.

• Warms the body, supports circulation, and provides physical and mental vigor.

• Excess may cause high blood pressure, headaches, nosebleeds, and chest pain.

• Deficiency may lead to anemia, paleness, weakness, and fatigue.

2. Phlegm (Balgham)

• A white or clear fluid representing moisture, coolness, and bodily calm.

• Lubricates joints and internal organs and cools the body.

• Excess may cause phlegmatic buildup, productive cough, sinus issues, obesity, and fatigue.

• Deficiency results in excessive dryness, rough skin, and dehydration.

3. Yellow Bile (Safra’)

• A yellowish fluid associated with fire, heat, and metabolism.

• Functions in digestion and excretion and fuels inner drive and vitality.

• Excess may cause high fever, diarrhea, irritability, insomnia, and inflammation.

• Deficiency may result in poor digestion, fatigue, and loss of appetite.

4. Black Bile (Sauda’)

• A dark fluid symbolizing earth, stability, and emotional balance.

• Linked to mental fortitude, memory, and emotional steadiness. Excess may cause depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances, and skin disorders such as eczema.

• A deficiency may weaken concentration, memory, and emotional stability.

Principle 5: Meraksi (Diagnosis)

Meraksi in Malay medicine denotes the process of identifying disease or bodily imbalance through observation, touch, and analysis of specific signs. It is a traditional diagnostic approach grounded in experience, knowledge of Mizaj and akhlat, and the body’s relationship with its environment. Key techniques include:

1. Pulse Palpation

• The practitioner assesses the patient’s pulse to evaluate strength, softness, speed, and irregularities.

• A steady pulse indicates health, while a weak, rapid, or irregular pulse suggests an imbalance in Mizaj or akhlat.

• This method aligns with diagnostic practices in Greco-Islamic medicine and remains in use in Malay healing.

2. Urinalysis (Qarurah)

• Observation of urine color, odor, and texture to determine internal health.

• Clear urine is considered normal; cloudy, concentrated, or foul-smelling urine may indicate kidney, liver, or infectious disorders.

3. Stool Examination

• Assessment of color, texture, odor, and frequency.

• Normal stool suggests proper digestive function; sudden changes may indicate digestive problems, food poisoning, or elemental imbalance.

4. Observation of Bodily Organs (Tashrih)

• Focus on the 40 principal parts of the human body deemed significant to health.

• Each part has specific functions interlinked to maintain bodily equilibrium; disturbance in one may affect the whole system.

• Particular attention is given to seven “chief organs,” considered vital regulators of life: the brain (center of intellect and the nervous system), heart (circulation and vitality), liver (blood filtration, bile production, metabolism), spleen (immunity and blood balance), lungs (respiration and gas exchange), kidneys (filtration, urine regulation, fluid balance), and stomach (digestion).

Principle 6: Energy (Quwwah)

In Malay medicine, quwwah (vital energy) is the driving force that enables the body to perform physiological, psychological, and spiritual activities. Without energy, the body becomes weak and cannot maintain the balance of body and soul. This energy is divided into two main categories:

1. Spiritual Energy (Quwwah Ruhaniyyah)

• Governs the soul, intellect (‘aql) and emotions (nafs).

• Regarded as the source of spiritual strength that shapes mental and emotional health.

• Strengthened through worship and moral practice, prayer, dhikr, supplication (doa), ruqyah, and virtuous conduct.

• When weak, individuals may experience psychological stress, anxiety, depression, and spiritual disturbances.

• When balanced, it yields inner tranquility, mental clarity, and a positive life force.

2. Physical Energy (Quwwah Jasmaniyyah)

• Governs biological functions such as digestion, respiration, blood circulation, and muscular movement.

• Depends on physical fitness, adequate nutrition, quality sleep, and healthy circulation.

• Sustained through a balanced diet, exercise, massage, and herbal remedies suitable to one’s Mizaj.

• Weakness leads to easy fatigue, loss of stamina, and susceptibility to illness; strength supports vigor, health, and daily productivity.

Principle 7: Afa‘l (Functions)

In Malay medicine, afa‘l refers to all processes and activities occurring within the human body. Afa‘l are crucial indicators of health: when functions run smoothly, the body remains healthy; when disrupted, disease manifests. They are categorized into two main types:

1. Single Functions

• Activities carried out by a single organ or system.

• Examples include the heart pumping blood, the lungs enabling respiration and gas exchange, the liver producing bile to aid in fat digestion, and the kidneys filtering blood and producing urine. Disorders in these single functions typically result in specific diseases such as heart failure, asthma, hepatic disorders, or renal failure.

2. Combined Functions

• Activities that involve multiple organs working together as a system.

• Examples: the digestive system (mouth, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, small and large intestines); the circulatory system (heart, arteries, veins, capillaries); the respiratory system (nose, throat, lungs, diaphragm); the reproductive system (reproductive organs, hormones, endocrine network).

• Diseases involving combined functions are usually more complex because they entail interactions among several organs—for instance, diabetes (pancreas, liver, blood) or hypertension (heart, blood vessels, kidneys).